Estratégia de Forex Estratégia de Forex, estratégia simples, Estratégia de negociação de Forex, Forex Scalping Estratégia de negociação intradiário forex para gráfico de 5 minutos: Recomende o comércio para esta estratégia em pares de moedas EURUSD e GBPUSD, mas não faça mais de 3 transações comerciais por dia. Assim, num gráfico de preços de 5 minutos: 1) Indicador 50 Média Móvel Simples (SMA 50) 2) Indicador 21 Média Móvel Exponencial (EMA 21) 3) 10 Média Móvel Exponencial (EMA 10) A entrada no mercado: Posição de negociação aberta assim que o ângulo de SMA com um período de 50 excede 20 graus (ver gráfico número 1), eo preço retorna 8212 a área entre a EMA com um período de 21 e EMA com um período de 10. Por Exemplo 8212 Figura 1, abrimos o negócio para vender a inclinação dos 50 SMA. Set SL (6 pips spread) e TP (8-10 pips). Quando em sua posição de comércio terá 6 pips, imediatamente transferir o SL para breakeven (para isso é simplesmente não substituir a parada de arrasto em uma viagem). Apenas alguns exemplos: Descrição Geral Todos os seres vivos precisam de enzimas para manter a vida. O corpo depende de enzimas para ajudar a purificar o sangue, quebrar as gorduras, limpar o cólon, manter os níveis adequados de colesterol e manter os níveis de energia máxima. Enzimas alimentares não são algo novo, mas têm sido conhecida a existir desde o tempo de Hipócrates. Reconhece-se há muito tempo que a doença está relacionada com uma dieta inadequada e uma alimentação inadequada e que o jejum, o sumo e as dietas ricas em ervas e alimentos crus ajudam a restaurar o corpo à saúde. Alimentos tradicionais e dietas étnicas com ervas foram a regra antes da introdução de alimentos processados modernos. Uma das populações vivas mais longas na Terra, a Hunz, subsistiu principalmente em uma dieta de alimentos crus, uma dieta abundante com enzimas. Enzimas agem dentro de diferentes faixas de temperatura e pH, dependendo do seu tipo e função e são facilmente destruídos por cozimento, incluindo fornos de microondas. O trabalho que está sendo feito na Europa com dietas de alimentos crus mostra que pacientes com doenças degenerativas de longa data são capazes de fazer recuperações notáveis, eo Instituto Nacional de Saúde divulgou recentemente um estudo mostrando que comer refeições menores leva a uma vida mais longa. Isso sugere que nossa produção intrínseca de enzimas é mais capaz de cuidar de cargas dietéticas menores do que uma maior ingestão de alimentos. Enzimas As enzimas são moléculas de proteínas complexas que são encontradas em cada célula do seu corpo. As enzimas podem se ativar, e são capazes de tarefas específicas, como a produção de energia ou troca de oxigênio e dióxido de carbono, quando respiramos. Eles são capazes de transferir energia para outras moléculas, tornando mais fácil para eles serem produzidos e utilizados pelo corpo, criando um efeito dominó e, portanto, acelera todas as funções corporais. Nosso corpo contém 1.300 enzimas diferentes que quebram os nutrientes, reconstruir as células e fazer com que o corpo funcione livre de doenças. O sistema digestivo transforma alimentos em energia para o uso do corpo, quebrando proteínas complexas, gorduras e carboidratos em formas menores, mais simples e mais utilizáveis. Sem esta transformação, a digestão ea assimilação de nutrientes é difícil de impossível. Sua saúde é mais sobrecarregada e abusada por excessos de alimentos processados e estimulantes: farinha assada, laticínios e, cafeína, refrigerantes, açúcar e álcool. Digestão começa com a visão e cheiro de alimentos que estimula a secreção de enzimas. A degustação e a mastigação permitem a saturação da enzima salivar, a amilase, que decompõe o amido em glicose quando mastiga batata ou pão. O pH cai para um intervalo de acidez tão baixo quanto quatro ou cinco. A parte superior do estômago chamada de fundo continua a usar amilase e outras enzimas para predigestão. O conteúdo do estômago é então passado através da válvula pilórica no intestino delgado, onde é misturado com sucos pancreáticos. Estes sucos são ricos em enzimas tais como protease (proteína), amilase (amido) e lipase (gordura, digestores). Eles continuam a digerir e preparar alimentos para assimilação. A natureza alcalina das secreções pancreáticas ajuda a neutralizar os ácidos do estômago (que ajudam na digestão), e protege o intestino delgado. Enzimas Proteção natural contra doenças As enzimas têm um grande efeito sobre toda a função imunológica. As células brancas do sangue contêm enzimas digestivas, tais como fosfatase alcalina, lipase, protease, amilase e peptidase, que são parte dos sucos pancreáticos, e são apenas uma parte de muitas enzimas que aumentam a função imunológica. Pancreatina contém as enzimas pancreáticas amilase, lipase e tripsina. Estas enzimas pancreáticas úteis ajudam na decomposição de amidos, gorduras e proteínas. Estas enzimas dos glóbulos brancos agem para destruir as proteínas bacterianas e virais (que podem causar doenças) e também agem sobre alimentos mal digeridos. Tem sido demonstrado que a concentração de glóbulos brancos no estômago e os intestinos aumentam com a digestão como enzimas de glóbulos brancos são necessários para ajudar com a repartição e assimilação de alimentos. Uma dieta rica em alimentos crus, e usando ervas como alimento e medicina é rica em enzimas, que predigest os alimentos no estômago poupando a reserva de células brancas do sangue. É por isso que uma diminuição do apetite e / ou náusea muitas vezes acompanha o processo da doença. Além disso, a digestão de alimentos cozidos ou processados requer energia e glóbulos brancos que são necessários em outros lugares para combater o processo da doença. Química do cérebro desliga o centro de fome no cérebro, conforme necessário para que o sistema imunológico pode estar em função de pico para combater o processo da doença. Nutritional Enzyme Therapy As enzimas são muito úteis no tratamento de várias doenças. Eles são absorvidos pelo corpo como moléculas intactas e são distribuídos para o corpo através da corrente sanguínea, conforme necessário, apoiando as necessidades do corpo contra o processo da doença. Bromelina. Encontrado no abacaxi é usado para diminuir a inflamação na artrite, reumatismo e lesão muscular-esquelética. É provado ser mais eficaz do que comumente prescrito anti-inflamatórios não esteróides e não tem efeitos secundários tóxicos. É melhor usar o abacaxi fresco em pequenas quantidades ou diluído em água ou suco, como o enlatado ou engarrafado foi aquecido e perdeu suas enzimas. A fibrose cística é uma doença em que o pâncreas não pode secretar enzimas suficientes. Isso geralmente acompanha outros distúrbios glandulares que afetam a tireóide, glândulas supra-renais, baço e outras glândulas. Também toxifies o fígado e pode ser relacionado a problemas intestinais, distúrbios do sono, desequilíbrio hormonal estrogênio e perda de energia. Protease. É uma enzima mostrada para retardar a metástase e contribuir para o encolhimento do tumor, enquanto a protease reduz a dor do câncer. Lipase Amilase. Evidências recentes mostram que os níveis ricos de lipase e amilase no sangue conduzem a uma diminuição das placas arterioscleróticas, tornando assim a terapia enzimática útil contra a doença arterial coronária e a aterosclerose. Envelhecimento e Enzimas. Enzimas têm provado dar aos idosos mais energia, uma sensação de bem-estar, melhor assimilação de nutrientes e resistência à doença. Envelhecimento reduz a capacidade de produzir enzimas e assimilar nutrientes, retardando assim a nossa capacidade de curar. Deficiências de Enzima. Deficiências em enzimas são freqüentemente associadas com doenças gastrointestinais, distúrbios digestivos, gás periódico e inchaço. As refeições que parecem permanecer no estômago por horas ou dias podem ser um sinal de doença. Uma avaliação por seu médico é necessária para determinar a causa. Herbal enzima terapia pode ser a cura. Enzima Suplementação O uso de enzimas como um suplemento com as refeições tem sido popular por algum tempo. Nós consumimos alimentos cozinhados e processados, como fast foods que são nutricionalmente incompleta. Isso aumenta a carga do pâncreas e do sistema imunológico para substituir enzimas perdidas, roubando o corpo de produção de energia, reserva de enzimas e função. A suplementação enzimática com as refeições é uma medida preventiva muito boa. Uma boa fórmula digestiva geral, que também ajuda o corpo a ajustar-se ao seu peso adequado e funciona muito bem para perda de peso, deve conter betaína HCI (aumenta a acidez do estômago), pancreatina e pancrelipase (digere amidos, gorduras, proteínas), papaína ), Pepsina (digere proteínas), diatase (digerir amidos) e Ox Bile (digere gordura). Muitas ervas são ativadores enzimáticos que potenciam e aumentam a ação enzimática enquanto reduzem a inflamação, removendo o gás e aumentando a digestão: Fenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraecum) é uma dessas ervas. Fenugreek é limpeza para as passagens brônquicas de catarro e outros irritantes e materiais estranhos. É útil para todas as condições de muco e para congestionamento de pulmão calmante para condições inflamadas do estômago e intestinos e para úlceras eficazes como cataplasma em feridas, áreas inflamadas, furúnculos e carbúnculos. Pode ser usado como um lubrificante para os intestinos, como um auxílio digestivo, para febres, diabetes, gota, e como um afrodisíaco e rejuvenator. Uma dose sugerida de Fenugreek é duas ou mais cápsulas de 500 mg, 10-15 minutos antes das refeições. Se for necessário mais, consulte o seu médico. É importante que seu médico avalie problemas digestivos persistentes. Sri Lanka: Expedição para a Ilha de Jóias Em fevereiro de 2014, os autores exploraram Sri Lankarsquos toda a mina para mercado de pedras preciosas e indústria de jóias. A equipe visitou vários mineração, corte, comércio, fabricação de jóias e centros de varejo representando cada setor e testemunhou uma mistura dinâmica de práticas tradicionais e cada vez mais modernas. Séculos de tradição como uma mineração de pedras preciosas coloridas, comércio e fonte de corte agora convergem com as tecnologias, conjuntos de habilidades e estratégias de todayrsquos mercado global. O Sri Lanka é uma das mecas da gemologia. Poucas fontes, especialmente entre as localidades ativas, podem igualar sua rica história como um produtor de gemas e um centro comercial. À medida que o Sri Lanka toma seu lugar na indústria de gemas e jóias de todayrsquos, o gemologist pode observar uma combinação de métodos tradicionais e tecnologias modernas, bem como novas estratégias de negócios para um mercado altamente competitivo. O que parecem ser práticas primitivas é muitas vezes altamente eficiente e bem adaptado à tarefa. Enquanto a maioria das empresas de mineração são pequenas operações usando ferramentas manuais simples, estas permitem mineração contínua, empregam uma grande força de trabalho e são menos prejudiciais ao meio ambiente (figura 1). O corte é outro setor onde as técnicas tradicionais ainda prevalecem, proporcionando excelente orientação inicial do cristal áspero para máxima coloração e retenção de peso com a face para cima. Ao mesmo tempo, recutting altamente qualificado em Sri Lanka está alcançando padrões internacionais do mercado das proporções, da simetria, e do brilho (figura 2). O corte preciso de precisão a tolerâncias apertadas no equipamento lapidário moderno está sendo aplicado a produtos calibrados que atendem aos requisitos mais rigorosos, incluindo os da indústria de relógios. Figura 1. À medida que o Sri Lanka desenvolve sua indústria de mineração de pedra colorida, as práticas tradicionais ainda são eficazes. Foto por Andrew Lucas. Enquanto as pequenas lojas dependem de técnicas de fabricação de jóias, tais como mão-soprado de solda, fábricas modernas usam cera perdida e fundição, bem como morrer-golpeando. A negociação de gema evoluiu, em parte devido a regulamentos de importação e exportação mais favoráveis ao comércio, tornando os compradores do Sri Lanka mais competitivos a nível global. A indústria de varejo continua a encontrar um grande mercado doméstico para jóias de ouro tradicional 22K enquanto se expandindo para atender os gostos diversos de Sri Lanka mais jovens e turistas. Figura 2. Os lapidários do Sri Lanka incorporam técnicas tradicionais, corte de precisão moderno e recutting altamente qualificado. Este trabalhador tem décadas de experiência cortando e recutindo corindo e crisoberilo. Foto por Andrew Lucas. Sri Lanka é uma grande ilha no Oceano Índico, ao largo da ponta sul da Índia. Ele mede 65.610 quilômetros quadrados (40.768 milhas quadradas), com 1.340 quilômetros (832 milhas) de litoral. No sudoeste, onde a maioria da mineração de gemstone ocorre, a estação do monsoon dura de junho a outubro. Sri Lanka está localizado no caminho das principais rotas de comércio no Oceano Índico, uma vantagem que ajudou a estabelecer como uma das worldrsquos fontes gem mais importantes. Além de pedras preciosas, Sri Lanka tem recursos naturais de calcário, grafite, areias minerais, fosfatos, argila e energia hidrelétrica. O país também é conhecido por seu chá, especiarias, borracha e têxteis. Do total da força de trabalho, 42,4 são empregados no setor de serviços, 31,8 na agricultura e 25,8 na indústria, que inclui mineração e manufatura (CIA World Fact Book, 2014). Espera-se que a indústria turística veja um forte crescimento, embora a infra-estrutura existente possa ter dificuldades para acomodar um grande afluxo de visitantes a atrações como as ruínas de Sigiriya, Patrimônio Mundial da UNESCO (figura 3). Figura 3. Sigiriya, uma enorme rocha de mais de 200 metros de altura, foi transformada em uma fortaleza real durante o reinado do rei Kashyapa (477495 dC), com palácios, jardins, piscinas e afrescos. É uma atração turística principal em Sri Lanka. Foto por Andrew Lucas. Sri Lankarsquos economia tem experimentado forte crescimento desde 2009, que marcou o fim de uma guerra civil de 26 anos que há muito atormentado desenvolvimento econômico. A população countryrsquos de quase 22 milhões engloba diferentes etnias e religiões que se refletem nos estilos de jóias fabricadas e vendidas no mercado interno. A população é 73,8 cingaleses, 7,2 mouros cingaleses, 4,6 indianos do Tamil, e 3,9 cingaleses do Tamil (com 10 não especificado). Os budistas representam 69,1 da população, muçulmanos 7,6, hindus 7,1 e cristãos 6,2 (CIA World Fact Book, 2014). Enquanto muçulmanos e hindus representam uma minoria distinta, eles têm uma rica tradição de jóias, e os autores testemunharam a importância de seu poder de compra no setor de varejo. HISTÓRIA DO COMÉRCIO GEM O uso de pedras preciosas no Sri Lanka remonta a pelo menos 2.000 anos. A ilha gem-carregada foi consultada em Sânscrito como Ratna Dweepa, significando ldquoIsland de Jewelsrdquo (Hughes, 2014). Conhecida até 1972 como Ceilão, tem uma rica história como fonte de pedras preciosas economicamente importantes, particularmente safira (figura 4) e catrosquos-olho crisoberilo. Enquanto o Sri Lanka produz uma variedade de preciosas pedras preciosas, safira é o mais importante comercialmente. Foto por Robert Weldon. Cortesia de Bill Larson. James Emerson Tennent, administrador do Ceilão britânico de 1846 a 1850, observou que o Mahavamsa (A Grande Crônica de Ceilão) menciona um trono incrustado de pedras preciosas, de propriedade de um rei naga, em 543 aC, quando foram escritas as primeiras contas da ilha Hughes, 1997). O naturalista romano Plínio, o Velho escreveu que os embaixadores de Taprobane, como Sri Lanka era conhecido na época, se vangloriou de suas pedras preciosas durante o reinado do imperador Claudius de 41 a 54 AD (Hughes, 1997). O astrónomo grego Ptolomeu referiu-se ao islão, berilo, safira e ouro no século II dC (Hughes, 1997). Marco Polo viajou para lá em 1293 e notou a abundância de gemas, incluindo rubi, safira, topázio, ametista e granada (Ariyaratna, 2013). O famoso explorador árabe Ibn Battuta, visitando no século 14, escreveu sobre a variedade de pedras preciosas que ele viu (Ariyaratna, 2013). Entre 500 e 1500 dC, durante o domínio dos reis cingaleses antigos e medievais, a mineração, posse e comércio de pedras preciosas foi controlada pelo monarca. Os comerciantes árabes e persas compraram muitas gemas finas. Durante os períodos de colonização européia, o comércio de mdashgem expandiu-se para além da família real, já que os europeus estavam unicamente interessados em comércio e lucro (Mahroof, 1997). Os comerciantes europeus trouxeram mais desses bens para o Ocidente e promoveu a reputação islandrsquos como uma fonte de pedras preciosas e experiência comercial. Durante o 20o século, Sri Lankarsquos que está como um centro de comércio da gema do premier diminuiu. Isso se deveu a vários fatores: o surgimento de outras fontes, a incapacidade de adaptar e dominar a tecnologia, como o tratamento térmico eo corte moderno, e as regulamentações governamentais que impediram o rápido crescimento da Tailândia e de outros países. Nas últimas duas décadas, Sri Lanka superou esses contratempos e agora tem uma dinâmica, crescendo rapidamente jóias e jóias indústria. Figura 5. A safira Logan de 423 ct é uma das muitas pedras famosas do Sri Lanka. Foto por Chip Clark cortesia da Smithsonian Institution. Sri Lanka é mais conhecido por sua grande, excepcional safira e estrela corindo. As pedras importantes relatadas para ser do Sri Lanka incluem (Ariyaratna, 2013): o gigante azul de 466 ct do Oriente, supostamente extraído da área de Ratnapura em 1907 a safira de Logan de 423 ct (figura 5) eo rubi estrela de 138 ct Rosser Reeves , Ambos alojados no Smithsonian Institutionrsquos Museu Nacional de História Natural o 400 ct Blue Belle da Ásia, disse ter sido encontrado em um arrozal no distrito de Ratnapura em 1926, e descrito como tendo o altamente desejável ldquocornflowerrdquo cor azul o 363 ct Star De Lanka, possuída pela autoridade nacional da jóia e da jóia o orgulho 850 ct do Sri Lanka safira azul, encontrou em Ratnapura em junho 1998 a estrela cinza-cinzenta 563 ct da India, que foi descoberta realmente em Sri Lanka e doada ao museu americano de História natural em 1900 por JP Morgan a safira azul de 12 ct no anel de noivado de Diana, princesa de Wales, que é vestida agora pela duquesa de Cambridge, Kate Middleton A EXPEDIÇÃO O objetivo deste estudo w Como para documentar toda a indústria de pedra preciosa do Sri Lankan colorido de mina para o mercado. Enquanto muitos artigos anteriores se concentraram em geologia e mineração, decidimos cobrir todo o espectro, incluindo gem mineração, importação e exportação, corte, tratamento, fabricação de jóias e varejo. Queríamos confiar fortemente nas nossas próprias observações para todos os sectores. Buscamos comunicação direta com líderes da indústria e membros do comércio. Através de extensas viagens e numerosas visitas a diferentes operações e negócios, reunimos toda a imagem. Centenas de horas de vídeo e entrevistas e mais de 7.000 fotos documentaram todos os aspectos da indústria no Sri Lanka. Nossa primeira parada foi nos escritórios da Sapphire Capital Group, onde vimos os concessionários do Sri Lanka servindo como consultores especializados para compradores estrangeiros. Durante um dia inteiro, assistimos a um comprador da Nova Zelândia comprar um pacote de safira e outras pedras preciosas de negociantes que seu contato local havia organizado (figura 6). Como ele escolheu suas safiras, o comprador estrangeiro consultaria os cingaleses sobre como as pedras se recuariam. Lá também capturou o recutting altamente qualificados de safira e catrosquos-olho chrysoberyl. Figura 6. Os compradores estrangeiros costumam contar com um revendedor local confiável para trazer outros revendedores para mostrar seus produtos. Os contatos locais aconselham seus clientes estrangeiros sobre decisões de compra e recutting. Foto por Andrew Lucas. Nos próximos dias, fizemos visitas a atacadistas, varejistas e instalações de corte em Colombo. Na Precision Lapidaries, nós pegamos um vislumbre da moderna Sri Lanka corte de pedras preciosas indústria, que enfatiza a precisão e qualidade. Nossa primeira viagem fora de Colombo foi para o mercado de fim de semana em Beruwala, que foi particularmente ocupado (figura 7). Fomos capazes de ver a arte da rua lidar no Sri Lanka, juntamente com a actividade comercial nos escritórios. Também entrevistámos cortadores tradicionais e um especialista no tratamento térmico da safira. Figura 7. A cena de rua em Beruwala estava cheia de atividade comercial. Foto por Andrew Lucas. Nossa parada seguinte era o mercado famoso do gemstone perto de Ratnapura, onde o negociar nas ruas era mesmo mais pesado do que em Beruwala. Fomos autorizados a visitar inúmeros escritórios e instalações tradicionais de corte e tratamento. Depois de passar várias horas no mercado em Ratnapura, nós exploramos operações de mineração de poço na área. Em Balangoda vimos três operações de mineração mecanizada e entrevistou vários mineiros. Também fomos capazes de assistir a uma operação de mineração de rio. Por este ponto em nossa viagem, nós observamos os três tipos principais de recuperação de gem no Sri Lanka: (1) mineração de poço, incluindo poços estreitos simples com galerias e pequenas operações a céu aberto, ambos trabalhados à mão (2) mineração mecanizada em Cavidades abertas, incorporando retroescavadeiras ou escavadeiras para escavação e esclusas para lavagem e (3) mineração tradicional de rios. Em Elahera, outra localidade famosa em nosso itinerário, observamos uma operação mecanizada e mineração de poço tradicional. De volta a Colombo, tivemos três dias para explorar outras instalações de corte, atacadistas e varejistas, fabricantes de jóias modernas e tradicionais e o famoso centro de jóias e jóias da Sea Street. DEPÓSITOS GEMOS A classificação dos depósitos de gemas de Sri Lankarsquos está resumida na figura 8. A maioria dos depósitos de gemas são de natureza sedimentar, embora existam alguns depósitos primários relacionados a rochas metamórficas e magmáticas. O metamorfismo regional e ou de contato favoreceu a formação de corindo e espinélio ao remover sílica e água, transformando silicatos portadores de alumínio e magnésio em óxidos. Pegmatites são a fonte magmatic a mais importante de gemas de Sri Lankan, hospedando o beryl, o tourmaline, o corindon, e o moonstone, entre outro. O pegmatite mais famoso é o depósito de pedra-lua em Meetiyagoda, no sul do Sri Lanka (Dissanayake e Chandrajith, 2003). Mendis et ai. (1993) notaram que muitos depósitos são distribuídos ao longo de características estruturais tais como falhas, dobras e zonas de cisalhamento. Embora essas estruturas possam influenciar a distribuição dos depósitos de gemas, ainda não está claro se eles são geneticamente relacionados. Figura 8. Principais categorias de depósitos de gemas no Sri Lanka e nas correspondentes áreas de mineração. De Dissanayake e Chandrajith (2003). Caixa A: Uma História Relacionada à Terra A ilha de Sri Lanka foi abençoada com alguns dos mais ricos depósitos de gemas do planeta. Metamorfismo gerado por uma série de montanha-edifício eventos resultou na jóia riqueza que vemos hoje. Antes da conhecida Pangea, havia vários supercontinentes na história inicial de Earthrsquos. Os ciclos de montagem e desmembramento desses supercontinentes são os motores que formaram a maior parte dos depósitos de gemas do mundo (Figura A-1), e alguns desses eventos estão intimamente relacionados com a formação de gemas no Sri Lanka. Quase nove décimos do Sri Lanka é subjacente por rochas metamórficas de alto grau de idade pré-cambriana. A datação de neosidimio e rubídio-estrôncio (ver Milisenda et al., 1988, Kroumlner e Williams, 1993) indica uma idade entre 1.000 e 3.000 milhões de anos (Ma). O supercontinente Rodínia, predecessor de Pangea, reuniu-se entre 1300 e 900 Ma (Li et al., 2008), pelo que o protólito destas rochas metamórficas de alto grau deve ter sido herdado de ciclos de supercontinentes anteriores. McMenamin e McMenamin (1990) consideraram Rodinia o ldquomotherrdquo de todos os continentes subseqüentes. Mais de 75 da massa terrestre planetrsquos naquele tempo tinham aglomerado para formar Rodinia, mas tamanho gigantesco não traduziu a estabilidade para o supercontinente. Devido ao isolamento térmico causado pela terra gigante, a primeira ruptura de Rodinia aconteceu em cerca de 750 Ma ao longo da margem ocidental da Laurentia. O levantamento entre a Amazônia e a margem sudeste da Laurentia começou aproximadamente na mesma época (Li et al., 2008). Enquanto Rodinia estava se separando, os continentes individuais de Gondwana começaram a se unir. Gondwanaland foi montado entre 950 e 550 Ma (Kroumlner, 1991). Distribuições de idade de zircão detrital indicam que a orogenia panafricana de escala global atingiu seu pico entre 800 e 600 Ma (Rino et al., 2008). Esta orogenia formou uma das cadeias de montanhas mais longas da história da Terra: o cinturão de Moçambique que se estende desde a actual Moçambique até a Etiópia e Sudão e também cobre a maior parte de Madagáscar, a ponta sul da Índia, Sri Lanka e a costa oriental da Antártida. Este cinto, uma zona de impulso e dobra que marca a junção entre o leste eo oeste de Gondwana, é também um cinto mineral. Hoje em dia, o Sri Lanka ocupava uma posição central nesse cinturão. A geocronologia de urânio-chumbo mostra que os zircões de rochas metamórficas de alto grau de Sri Lankarsquos experimentaram uma perda significativa de Pb a 550 Ma, e um novo crescimento de zircão, monazita, rutilo e granada ocorreu entre 539 e 608 Ma (Kroumlner e Williams, 1993). Estas são as datas do metamorfismo quase-pico que criou as pedras preciosas neste país. Figura A-1. O supercontinente Rodinia foi formado há 900 milhões de anos e começou a se separar cerca de 150 milhões de anos mais tarde. Alguns de seus fragmentos se reagruparam para formar Gondwanaland, que mais tarde se tornou parte do supercontinente Pangea. Ámérica do Sul, África, Madagascar, Índia, Sri Lanka, Antártica e Austrália já foram conectados em Gondwanaland. Adaptado de Li et al. (2008) e Dissanayake e Chandrajith (1999). Quase todas as fontes de Sri Lankarsquos são aluviais, contendo ricas concentrações de cascalhos de gemas chamadas de illam (figura 9). Além de safiras, uma variedade de outras gemas são recuperados do illam, incluindo spinel, catresquos-olho chrysoberyl, e moonstone. Muito poucos depósitos primários importantes foram encontrados. Um foi descoberto por acidente durante a construção de estradas em 2012 perto da cidade de Kataragama (Dharmaratne et al., 2012 Pardieu et al., 2012). O achado de safira era altamente valioso, estimado em 100 milhões de dólares ou mais, então o governo leiloou terrenos circundantes para a mineração. Embora essas pequenas parcelas tenham sido vendidas pelo maior preço já registrado para as licenças de mineração de gemas no Sri Lanka, nenhum depósito comercialmente valioso foi encontrado posteriormente. Mas um estudo geológico completo do depósito ainda não foi realizado, de modo que o verdadeiro potencial de Kataragama ainda é desconhecido (V. Pardieu, com. Aproximadamente 10 a 15 depósitos primários de safira foram descobertos nos últimos 20 anos, todos por acidente (P. G.R. Dharmaratne, com. Pers., 2014). Figura 9. A maioria das pedras preciosas do Sri Lanka são de cascalho gema-conhecido como illam. Os cascalhos são lavados com a esperança de revelar um tesouro dentro do material mais pesado deixado para trás na mão dos mineiros. Foto por Andrew Lucas. A maioria de mineração aluvial é feita em áreas com uma história da produção da gema. Existem muitas dessas áreas na parte central para o sul da ilha. Devido à natureza dos depósitos minerais aluviais, cascalhos concentrados de gema podem ser deixados para trás. Os cascalhos aluviais de Ratnapura e Elahera podem conter amostras de vários tipos de depósitos primários (Groat e Giuliani, 2014). Os cristais encontrados em ou perto das rochas originais da fonte podem ser belamente dados forma, tais como aqueles em Kataragama (figura 10). Cristais que foram transportados distâncias mais longas, como espécimes encontrados em Ratnapura, são geralmente seixos arredondados (Zwaan, 1986). Figura 10. Este cristal de safira é do depósito primário em Kataragama. Foto de Vincent Pardieu. Prospecção no Sri Lanka é raramente científica. Ao avaliar uma área, o método tradicional é acionar uma haste de aço longo no chão (figura 11). Os garimpeiros examinam a extremidade da haste para arranhões e marcas de contato com quartzo e corindo, e para cascalho preso a ele. Alguns podem até mesmo distinguir o som que ele faz. Este método também pode ajudar na determinação da profundidade, composição, tamanho, caráter e cor do illam (Ariyaratna, 2013). Figura 11. O método tradicional de prospecção no Sri Lanka envolve a condução de uma haste de aço no chão e examiná-lo para arranhões e marcas de quartzo e corindo. Foto cortesia de Janka Hemachandra. Com mais de 103 bacias hidrográficas naturais que cobrem 90 das massas terrestres de countryrsquos (Dissanayake e Chandrajith, 2003), existem numerosos locais para gemas a serem concentradas em cascalhos. Os depósitos de corindo e outras gemas são conhecidos por ocorrer nos dois terços do sul da ilha (Hughes, 1997). Nós visitamos as áreas de mineração em torno de Ratnapura, Balangoda, e Elahera. Embora estes sejam apenas uma pequena porcentagem de depósitos de gemas de Sri Lankarsquos, eles deram uma visão representativa das operações de mineração em todo o país. Todos estes são depósitos de cascalho secundário, mas não conseguimos encontrar quaisquer depósitos primários sendo extraídos. Caixa B: Geologia Local De acordo com a nomenclatura sugerida por Cooray (1994), o subsolo pré-cambriano do Sri Lanka pode ser dividido em quatro unidades: o Complexo Highland (HC), o Complexo Vijayan (VC), o Complexo Wanni (WC) E do complexo de Kadugannawa (KC). A maior parte dos depósitos de gemas estão localizados no HC, que se estende de nordeste a sudoeste (figura B-1). Encontrado dentro do VC são klippes (ilha-como, fragmentos isolados de uma camada de rocha overthrust) do HC. Um de Sri Lankarsquos poucas minas de safira primária foi descoberto acidentalmente no klippe de Kataragama (Pannipitiye et al., 2012). O Highland Complex contém rochas metamórficas de alto grau, como gnaisses pelíticos, metaquartzita, mármore e gnaisses charnockites (Cooray, 1994). As rochas no HC têm o grau mais alto de metamorfismo (fácies de granulito), eo complexo é mais jovem do que o VC a leste e sul. O contato entre esses dois complexos é uma falha de impulso que mergulha para oeste e noroeste, com o HC em cima. Esta falha de impulso é também uma importante fronteira tectônica interpretada como uma zona de sutura que marca a junção final entre o Oeste e o Gondwanaland Oriental a aproximadamente 550 Ma (Kroumlner, 1991). A VC é composta por migmatites, gneisse graníticos, granitoides e metassedimentos dispersos (Cooray, 1994). Sentindo-se a oeste do HC, o WC contém migmatitas, gnaisses, metasedimentos e granitóides. A natureza ea posição exata do contato entre o WC e o HC ainda não estão bem definidas (Cooray, 1994). O KC menor está dentro das bacias sinformais alongadas em torno de Kandy. Hornblende e biotite-hornblende gneiss são as principais rochas no KC (Cooray, 1994). Além dessas unidades do porão precambriano, as costas norte e noroeste da ilha são cobertas por calcário Mioceno, leitos vermelhos quaternários e sedimentos clásticos e sedimentos recentes (Dissanayake, 1986). Figura B-1. Mapa geológico simplificado de Sri Lanka que mostra as unidades principais do porão e os depósitos principais da gema. Adaptado de Sajeev e Osanai (2004) e Dissanayake e Chandrajith (1999). Enquanto a indústria mineira moderna promove a recuperação pelos meios mais rápidos possíveis, Sri Lanka abraça quase a filosofia oposta. A mineração é feita principalmente pelo trabalho manual. A Autoridade Nacional de Jóias e Jóias (NGJA), órgão regulador que emite licenças de mineração, é muito rigorosa em seus requisitos para mineração mecanizada. Esta estratégia mantém aproximadamente 60 000 a 70 000 mineiros de gemas continuamente empregados (P. G. R. Dharmaratne, com. Pers., 2014). O predecessor da NGJA foi a State Gem Corporation, que estabeleceu escritórios regionais e assumiu o controle de licenças e diretrizes de mineração em 1972. Suas regulamentações para a indústria de gemas apoiaram operações de mineração legal (Dharmaratne, 2002). O Sri Lanka emitiu 6.565 licenças de mineração de gema em 2013. As licenças de mineração devem ser renovadas a cada ano, eo número tem aumentado constantemente desde 2009, quando a NGJA concedeu cerca de 4.000 deles. Muitas destas licenças são para áreas pequenas, meio acre a dois acres. Cada um pode acomodar dois a quatro poços tradicionais, com cerca de 7 a 10 mineiros por poço poços mais profundos podem acomodar 10 a 15 mineiros. Este sistema tem mantido um número bastante constante de minas ativas ao longo dos anos. Uma vez que uma área de mineração é terminada, o poço ou poço aberto deve ser preenchido de acordo com as normas aplicadas pela NGJA. Estas medidas ambientais dizem respeito a cascalho solto que contamina a água circundante, danos à paisagem e buracos cheios de água estagnada, um terreno fértil para mosquitos portadores da malária. Mineração de poços. No Sri Lanka, a mineração no poço é o método de mineração tradicional e, de longe, o mais difundido. More than 6,000 of the current licenses are for pit mines, compared to approximately 100 licenses for river mining and 10 for mechanized mining (P. G.R. Dharmashyratne, pers. comm. 2014). We witnessed numerous pit mining operations, all excellent demonstrations of the processes described to us by industry leaders. Miners are actually shareholders in such operations, receiving a small stipend and a percentage of the rough stone sales. As shareholders, they need little or no supervision. Several other people are involved in such a venture, including the landowner, the holder of the mining rights, and the person who supplies the pump to dewater the pit they typically receive 20, 10, and 10 of the sales, respectively. The rest of the revenue is split among the financial stakeholders and the miners (P. G.R. Dharmaratne, pers. comm. 2014). To give an idea of scale, a standard pit mine in Sri Lanka consists of a two by four meter opening at the surface (figure 12). If the pits are deep and located in harder ground, the miners may choose smaller dimensions. The vertical shafts generally range from 5 to 25 meters deep. The pits are created by first digging the opening to about a meter deep. The next step is making a wooden frame of timbers slightly taller than the depth of the pit. The miners place the first set of four timbers into the pit wall, which is grooved for a secure fit. Vertical struts of timber are wedged between the crossbeams. Branches and foliage help shore up the pit walls from water erosion, and timber braces are used in the center (figure 13). This process continues down the depth of the pit about every meter, until the miners reach the gem-bearing gravel. At this point they create horizontal crawl tunnels about 1.5 meters in height, called galleries, from the pit into the gem-bearing gravel. The length of these tunnels varies depending on the extent of the illam, but often reaches 5 to 10 meters. The galleries extending from the pit are interconnected with other tunnels. This leaves some areas of illam that cannot be mined because they are needed for structural support. Buckets of gravel are either passed to the surface or hauled up by rope on a manual winch. Some pits have a wood and branch rooftop to shield the miners from the intense sunlight. A pit with an opening wider than the traditional two by four meters is more like a very small open pit (also called an open cast), but it is still worked by manual labor. We witnessed some of these operations in Ratnapura and Elahera. Usually there were a half dozen people working in each pit. At least one miner at the bottom would shovel the illam into a woven bamboo basket held by another miner. That person would toss the basket to another miner, slightly higher up in the pit, who simultaneously tossed back an empty basket, like a perfectly harmonized juggling act. This process continued through several miners until the illam-filled basket reached the top, where it was dumped into a pile for washing. The accumulated mound of gem-bearing gravel could be covered with leafy branches, similar to those used to shore up the pit walls, to prevent rainwater from washing it away. Pit mines with a standard two by four meter shaft opening follow a similar process for removing the illam, but often using a manually operated winch for hauling buckets to the surface (figure 14). In both examples, the illam is either washed in a nearby reservoir by simple panning or removed to a more sophisticated washing facility featuring a sluice. The sluices are often modified from Australian designs, as they are in other parts of the world. The washed gem-bearing gravel is called dullam (Zwaan, 1982), which is also the term for the smaller, lower-quality gems picked from washing baskets and usually given to miners to sell. While rain caused the erosion that created the amazingly rich gem gravels of Sri Lanka, it also poses a significant obstacle to the mining process. Pits quickly fill up with rainwater that must be removed. This is often done by a pump, which is much faster than old-fashioned methods. Substantial rains can also cause erosion damage to the pits. We saw this at several locations, having arrived after fairly heavy rains. With around 6,500 mining licenses issued annually and around four or five pits in each mine, at any given time there could be 20,000ndash25,000 active pits in Sri Lanka. With extensive mining over the past 50 years, more than a million pits may have been dug altogether. Compared to many African mining countries, very few abandoned pits are left unfilled. This is because the NGJA collects a cash deposit upon issuing a mining license. If the mine owner fails to rehabilitate the land, the NGJA keeps the deposit for that purpose (P. G.R. Dharmaratne, pers. comm. 2014). Mechanized Mining. Only a limited number of mechanized mining licenses are issued in Sri Lanka each year. They may be granted if the concentration of gemstones is not high enough to make pit mining viable, or if there is a serious threat of illicit mining. To avoid large rushes of illicit miners to a rich discovery, the government may block access to the area or issue a mechanized mining license so the deposit can be mined quickly and legally (P. G.R. Dharmashyratne, pers. comm. 2014). Mechanized mining speeds the removal of overburden soil and the recovery of gem-bearing gravel for washing. Most mechanized mines in Sri Lanka are relatively small open-pit operations. Overburden soil sometimes contains dispersed gemstones, and it too may be washed. At mechanized operations, the illam is washed by sluices to keep up with the production (figure 15). Mechanized operations in Sri Lanka must also pay a deposit for the rehabilitation of the land. Figure 15. Mechanized mining in Sri Lanka usually includes washing the illam. Trucks move the gravel, which backhoes load into a sluice for washing. Photo by Andrew Lucas. While mechanized mining operations may use bulldozers, backhoes, excavators, front-loaders, trucks, and sluices for washing, they are still small-scale compared to those in other countries. The mechanized mining licenses are often issued by auction from the NGJA in blocks measuring 30 square meters. We witnessed three mechanized mining operations near Balangoda. The largest was an open-pit operation about 60 meters deep on a property covering 50 acres (figure 16). It had four excavators, two washing sluices, and a few trucks. The excavators at the bottom of the pit loaded the trucks with gem-bearing gravel. The trucks climbed the roads on the pit benches back to the top to the washing operations. The four excavators worked in tandem to move the gravel up the pit until the highest one loaded the trucks. Figure 16. This open-pit sapphire mine near Balangoda, a large one by Sri Lankan standards, had partially filled with water from rains the week before. Photo by Andrew Lucas. With global weather changes, Sri Lankan miners are finding that the rainy seasons are no longer as predictable. This interferes with mining operations, whether traditional or mechanized. At the time of our trip, rainwater had filled many of the pits and needed to be pumped out before mining could resume. The pit at the largest mechanized operation we visited took more than a week to dewater. River Mining. Although nowhere near as prevalent, river mining is also conducted in Sri Lanka. These areas may contain alluvial gem deposits where the river bends or otherwise slows down. The miners choose shallow waters and build a dam made of wood or rock where the stream slows, allowing the water to escape from one side of the dam but trapping the gravels. Using metal blades attached to long wooden poles called mammoties . the miners dredge the gravel until they reach the illam (figure 17). Long pointed steel rods are used to loosen the illam, which is dragged up and washed by the rushing water. Once any visible gemstones are removed, the remaining gravel may be further washed. We observed a river mining operation in Balangoda next to a tea plantation. There were four miners using mammoties to remove the illam, two miners washing gravels with baskets, and another removing larger rocks and building dams. Another miner would wade into the water to remove gravels and larger rocks. We did not see the use of mechanized or powered dredgers at any river mines. Gemstone cutting is another area where the traditional meets the modern in Sri Lanka. Centuries of experience in cutting corundum and other colored gemstones continue alongside new technologies and business models. The time-honored art of reading rough and orienting stones is integrated with the global marketrsquos growing demand for exact calibration, well-balanced proportions, and high-quality polish. Our team observed several examples of traditional and modern cutting, as well as some of the highest-precision cutting of colored gemstones we have ever witnessed. Numerous interviews with members of the Sri Lankan cutting industry revealed the interwoven nuances of blending the past, present, and future. There is still a relevant place for old-style cutters and their expertise, even as innovative companies are thriving. While Sri Lanka has seen some growth in diamond cutting, with 20 companies active in 2013mdashincluding De Beers sightholder Rosy Bluemdashmost of the activity is focused on colored stones, particularly sapphire. The number of licensed cutting businesses has increased only slightly over the last five years, from 174 to 192, though today there are larger, more modern lapidary companies. Traditional Cutting. While the West and Japan sometimes view traditional cutting in Sri Lanka as outdated and not up to modern global proportion and symmetry standards, one can still appreciate the craft. These cutters use a bow to power a vertical lap, often holding the stone by hand or with a handheld dop as they cut and polish (figure 18). They have a high degree of skill in orienting rough gemstones to achieve the best face-up color while retaining weight. Decades and even centuries of knowledge have been passed down on orienting sapphires and other gemstones such as catrsquos-eye chrysoberyl. Of all the cutting steps for colored stones, orienting the rough to display the best color through the table requires the highest skill, especially with valuable rough where weight retention is foremost. For high-quality sapphires, this method is still preferred by Sri Lanka cutters, especially for preforming. Figure 18. While their equipment appears primitive, Sri Lankan cuttersrsquo knowledge of orienting rough sapphire transcends technology and generations. Careful orientation to optimize color is a critical skill. Photo by Andrew Lucas. While blue sapphire often displays its best color through the c-axis, a skilled cutter can make slight angle adjustments to the table and still achieve a fine color with higher weight yield. If this is not done at the initial orientation, multiple recuts may be needed to get the right orientation of the table. With the orientation properly set, the recut produces a beautiful stone with minimum weight loss. For example, a 22 ct blue sapphire that is properly oriented for face-up color can be recut to close windows and optimize proportions and symmetry, while keeping the stone above 20 ct. If the orientation or proportions of a blue sapphire cause a reduction of color, the stonersquos value suffers accordingly. This is especially true for light - to medium-tone blue sapphires, where even a 5 to 10 reduction of color diminishes the value more than a 5 to 10 weight reduction. Precision Cutting and Free Size Cutting. For Sri Lanka to become a leader in the colored stone trade, its cutting industry must meet the specific needs of the global market, where customers from different countries require a wide variety of cutting specifications and tolerances. In Sri Lanka, many fine-quality sapphires over one carat are cut as free sizes. The cutting is performed to minimize windowing and yield pleasing proportions and symmetry rather than exact calibrated measurements. This allows weight retention on more valuable material while creating a beautiful stone with high brilliance. This is essentially a cost decision. It is less expensive to adjust mountings from the standard 12 times 10, 10 times 8, and 9 times 7 mm sizes than to lose weight from valuable gem material. With larger fine-quality material, sizing considerations always give way to beauty and weight retention. Even customers of calibrated sapphires have a range of tolerances. Some can accept a tolerance range as wide as 0.5 mm. For instance, sapphires cut to 7 times 5 mm sizes can vary up to 7.5 times 5.5 mm for some clients. Others have stricter tolerances, such as 0.2 mm, based on their jewelry manufacturing and mounting requirements. Some cutting companies offer tolerances of 0.1 mm or less (figure 19). Figure 19. The girdle outline of this sapphire is being cut to precise calibrated measurements for jewelry manufacture. Photo by Andrew Lucas courtesy of Precision Lapidaries. In Colombo, our team visited Precision Lapidaries and interviewed managing director Faiq Rehan. We also spoke with Saman K. Amarasena, vice chairman of the lapidary committee of the Sri Lanka Gem and Jewellery Association and owner of Swiss Cut Lapidary. On both occasions, we gained insights on the state of precision cutting in Sri Lanka. Despite being a fifth-generation member of the gem industry, Rehan started Precision Lapidaries in 1990 with a business model that was unconventional for Sri Lanka. Rather than cutting only large stones and selling them individually, he specialized in bulk quantities of calibrated cuts, applying the precision standards he had learned years earlier while cutting diamonds. The new company soon received large orders for calibrated sapphires in 2 to 4 mm princess cuts from Japanese clients who constantly pushed for tighter precision and higher quality. In expanding his business, Rehan preferred to hire young people directly out of school and train them to cut sapphire to his exacting standards. This philosophy was unusual in Sri Lanka, where cutters often come from a long line of cutters with deeply ingrained procedures and standards. As he entered the American market, Rehan found buyers wanting much larger quantities of stones cut at a much faster rate. They did not share the Japanese appreciation for precision measurements and higher quality of symmetry and polish. Rehan did not want to abandon his standards of precision and quality, however. He found that serving a high-quality niche market, rather than having a large inventory full of product similar to what was already available, allowed for constant inventory turnover. Rehan believes that the high-end and commercial markets in the United States and elsewhere are moving toward stricter precision and cut quality, and he has expanded his business to fill this demand. Many others are doing the same, and this is changing how the world views the Sri Lankan cutting industry. China now requires very bright stones with no windows or dark areas, as well as excellent proportions and symmetry. Chinese demand for its massive jewelry manufacturing industry has helped fuel the growth of precision cutting in Sri Lanka. The actual production model at Precision Lapidaries is also very different from many other cutting operations. Each cutter assumes full responsibility for a given stone instead of handing it off at different stages as in an assembly line. Some large-scale diamond cutting factories in India have also switched to this model to achieve higher quality standards through personal accountability (D. Pay, pers. comm. 2014). Using this model, Rehan treats his cutters more like partners, basing their compensation on both production and quality. Each cutter has an individual glass-walled workstation to eliminate distractions. A cutterrsquos typical output, using an already preformed and calibrated 8 times 6 mm oval as a benchmark, is 140 to 180 stones per eight-hour workday. The stones are tracked throughout the process and entered into a database. There are several quality control checks at the calibration stage (which requires tolerances of 0.1 mm or less), the faceting stages, and the finished product stage. The companyrsquos production manager noted that if any quality factors are not up to standards for calibration tolerance, facet symmetry, proportion variations, or polish, the stone is returned to the cutter with a repair order. Another nontraditional practice at Precision Lapidaries is its use of detailed inventory and grading reports, the kind favored by large diamond cutting companies. While there was initial resistance, over time customers became comfortable with the information contained in these reports. Each one itemizes a parcel by shape, weight, cutting style, color, and other quality factors. Established customers can review the reports to make buying decisions and place orders, even through the Internet. Swiss Cut Lapidary, which supplies the watch industry with colored gemstones, also stakes its reputation on precision and accuracy. The luxury watch industry requires very small stones cut with a high degree of precision, including very tight proportion tolerances for crown height, pavilion depth, and crown angle. Swiss Cut Lapidary cuts round faceted stones below 1 mm, and even down to 0.35 mm for ladiesrsquo watches. At these sub-millimeter sizes, each faceted stone has eight crown facets and eight pavilion facets. By achieving zero tolerances to the hundredth of a millimeter, the company is able to meet the stringent demands of watch manufacturers. In finished rounds below one millimeter, the size difference between the starting rough and the faceted stone is very slightmdashfor Amarasena, only 0.20 mm. In other words, for a round faceted stone of 0.50 mm, the rough can be as small as 0.70 mm. To achieve this level of precision, Mr. Amarasena first learned traditional cutting by hand before working with mechanical lapidary equipment for Japanese clients. To further his skills, he traveled to Germany and Spain, where he cut a variety of colored gemstones using modern machines and techniques. Upon returning to Sri Lanka with high-precision Swiss-made equipment, Amarasena purchased mine-cut sapphires and recut them to global market standards. In Europe he had seen many Sri Lankan sapphires being recut, so he knew the exact requirements. Figure 20. At Swiss Cut Lapidary, Saman Amarasena conducts quality control for the fitting of gemstones in a watch bezel. Photo by Andrew Lucas courtesy of Swiss Cut Lapidary. Amarasena also decided to shift his focus from recutting to unique designer cuts. At the annual Basel jewelry show, he noticed watches with small faceted gemstones set in the bezels. Back in Sri Lanka, he looked for small rough to use for cutting these stones. Rough chips were practically given to him because they were abundant and there was no real market for them. Amarasena faceted tiny precision stones from these chips in a wide variety of colors and tones, providing many options to watchmakers (figure 20). Although the rough costs slightly more today, its cost is minimal compared to the finished cut product. Micro-pave settings are another growing market for these precision-cut gemstones. Recutting. In Sri Lanka, some sapphires are initially cut with what has been termed a mine cut or native cut (figure 21). While the proportions and symmetry are not up to modern gem industry standards, the cutters execute a high degree of skill in orienting the rough primarily for weight retention. These stones are considered advanced preforms that can be recut to market-friendly proportions and symmetry without substantial weight loss. The ideal color orientation has already been applied, so many Sri Lankan dealers simply have them recut to close windows and remove excess depth from the pavilions while making the shapes less bulky and more appealing. Figure 21. This 6.76 ct mine cut sapphire has been oriented by a Sri Lankan cutter primarily for weight retention. It can be recut to meet global standards of proportion and symmetry. Photo by Robert Weldon. The same holds true for gemstones sold decades ago that are reentering the global market. Special care must be taken with stones that have deep pavilions. While the market prefers pavilions that are not overly deep, any reduction of color will lower the value considerably (figure 22). If the recut involves more substantial weight loss, then the calculations become more complicated, and every case is unique. If a 2.08 ct stone is to be recut to 1.80 ct, the buyer must decide if too much of the premium would be lost below the 2 ct size. Figure 22. The recutting of sapphire (left) requires great skill to close windows and improve symmetry, all while minimizing weight loss and retaining depth of color. Cats-eye chrysoberyl and star sapphire (right) are recut for better positioning of the effect. Photo by Andrew Lucas. These mine cuts from Sri Lanka were once exported to Thailand, the United States, and other countries to be recut to modern global standards. Eventually, Sri Lankan dealers realized they were missing out on a significant value-added service for their customers. Since the 1990s, they have provided that service, selling stones directly that meet the highest international cutting standards. Besides facet-grade sapphire, our team witnessed the recutting of catrsquos-eye chrysoberyl and star sapphire. The original mine cuts strongly favored weight retention over symmetry and placement of the catrsquos-eye or the star. Recutting was needed to reposition these effects to the center of the cabochon and add symmetry. The recutting also made for a straighter catrsquos-eye that moved more smoothly across the stone. While this involved some weight loss, it was often limited to a few points, and the final product would have significantly higher value on the global market. Japan was once the main market for catrsquos-eye chrysoberyl from Sri Lanka, but that distinction now belongs to China. Much of Sri Lankarsquos gemstone trading industry is centered on sapphire. Traditionally this was limited to goods of domestic origin, but today sapphires from around the world are brought to Sri Lanka for enhancement and cutting. Most import and export businesses are family-owned and go back several generations. For example, the fifth-generation Sapphire Capital Group has more than 100 family members involved in the industry. In 2013 there were 4,429 gem dealing companies in Sri Lanka, only a slight increase since 2009. Yet the quantity and value of exports has risen sharply over those five years (table 1). Table 1 (PDF) During the 1970s and 1980s, Thailand emerged as the undisputed leader in corundum trading. Its facilities began mastering the art of heat treatment, purchasing corundum rough from around the world. This included Sri Lankan geuda sapphire, which is translucent and has a desaturated, often grayish color. As the Thais discovered, heating this material gives it a transparent, highly saturated blue color. Sri Lankan buyers considered the geuda rough virtually worthless and were slow to capitalize on the use of heat treatment to turn it into a very valuable gemstone (Kuriyan, 1994). Unlike their Thai counterparts, Sri Lankan buyers dealt primarily in domestically mined rough. Part of this had to do with the idea of preserving a national brand identity, but what really hindered them was a cumbersome import policy for rough. This changed in the mid-1990s when the government lifted import duties that had inhibited the purchase of corundum rough from other sources. Sri Lankan buyers have, in turn, established a strong presence in the marketplace, especially at global gem sources such as Madagascar and Mozambique. While the countryrsquos industry still capitalizes on the brand identity of domestic gems, the trade is much more open to gems mined elsewhere. The improvements in the Sri Lankan industry are timed perfectly to take advantage of the increased global demand for sapphire, particularly the Chinese colored stone market (ldquoChina becoming Sri Lankarsquos top gem buyer. rdquo 2011). As an example of the rise in sapphire prices over the last few decades, untreated top-quality blue sapphires sold in Sri Lanka can reach US15,000 to 20,000 per carat. Those are dealer to dealer prices. In 1969 similar stones would have sold for US400 to 1,000 per caratmdashapproximately 2,600 to 6,500 per carat, adjusted for inflation (N. Sammoon, pers. comm. 2014). Local Mining Area and Street Markets. The first major street market we toured was in Beruwala, 60 km south of Colombo. The gem trading area of Beruwala is also known as China Fort, named for the Chinese merchants who arrived about 300 years ago. Most of the dealing occurs within a single block, where there is constant activity of dealers on the street. This market is open on Saturday from 6:00 a. m. to 2:30 p. m. or later if there is strong activity. During our visit, the market was also busy on Sunday. At any given time, over 5,000 dealers may be active on the street and in the hundred or so officesmdashthe major dealers in Colombo have offices in Beruwalamdashoffering rough sapphire from the mines of Sri Lanka, as well as Africa and other global sources. We witnessed a flurry of trading activity. Sri Lankan dealers often traded rough among themselves on the street (figure 23). Once word got out of a foreign buyer in a dealerrsquos office, other dealers would come by with their stones. There were also traditional Sri Lankan cutters and heat treatment facilities in Beruwala. Just off the street was Emteem Gem Laboratory, where dealers could bring in stones for testing and identification. The demand for lab services has grown tremendously with the influx of foreign customers, especially Chinese buyers. One of the most sought-after services is the detection of heat treatment in corundum. This is also one of the most challenging identifications, especially if relatively low temperatures are used in the treatment. For corundum that has been subjected to very high temperatures, clients were advised to submit the stone to a foreign laboratory with more sophisticated instrumentation that could conclusively identify beryllium diffusion. About half of the stones submitted to the Emteem lab are believed to be of African origin (M. T.M. Haris, pers. comm. 2014). We also stopped at the gem market in Ratnapura on the way to several nearby gem-mining operations. This market is active daily from 6:00 a. m. to 4:00 p. m. Like Beruwala, this market was bustling on the streets and in dealer offices (figure 24). While the streets were crowded with dealers, the market was spread out over several streets, as opposed to the single block in Beruwala. Ratnapura had numerous small traditional cutting operations. Like Beruwala, transactions were happening all over the street, particularly between Sri Lankan dealers. The market at Ratnapura is centered in one of the countryrsquos major gem sources and offered plentiful rough from the nearby mines and other areas (figure 25). There was also an abundance of cut stones for sale. Some foreign buyers on the street dealt directly with local miners, but most transactions were between Sri Lankan miners and dealers. We saw the same dealers attending different markets. Consulting for Foreign Buyers. One growing trend is for foreign buyers to work with Sri Lankan dealers to develop long-term supply chain management. The foreign dealers can arrange to have a variety of goods brought to their local contactrsquos office, allowing them to see much more inventory during a trip. The local dealer puts the word out to suppliers for the type of material required. Dealers bring their goods to the office for inspection by the foreign buyer. Prospective sellers are screened, making the transaction process more organized and less of a selling frenzy. Once the price is negotiated, the rest of the logisticsmdashpayment for the stones, export requirements, and shipping if requiredmdashare handled by the local contact, who receives a set commission from the seller. Besides convenience, this arrangement offers several other benefits. The local contact can give expert advice on recutting, including the difference in carat weight and price per carat. They can also recommend an acceptable counteroffer and give an expert opinion on the nature of the material (figure 26). This system minimizes risk, as the local contact stands behind the goods they have brought to the foreign buyer. For extra assurance, they can have the stones checked by a gemologist before the buyer leaves the country. Colombo is a hub for such services, and this same expertise and assurance is sought by foreign buyers in Sri Lankan mining areas and street markets. Figure 26. Local dealers with decades of experience provide invaluable consultation to foreign buyers on recutting stones and purchasing rough material. Photo by Andrew Lucas. Imports and Exports. Sri Lankarsquos import policies have been greatly simplified, making the process much easier and more cost-effective. For a US200 charge, rough, preformed, and cut stones can be imported for cutting, recutting, and heat treatment. The flat rate charge is assessed regardless of quantity and value. As of 2013, foreign customers buying gemstones parcels valued at over US200,000 are expedited through customs so they can board their flight with minimum processing. The export fee for these parcels is a flat rate of 1,500. Parcels valued below US200,000 require about two hours to be processed by the NGJA for export (A. Iqbal, pers. comm. 2014). Buying on the Secondary Market. Because Sri Lanka has been supplying sapphire, catrsquos-eye chrysoberyl, and other gemstones to the global market for so long, many dealers have decades of experience and an international clientele. Having maintained relationships with their customers, they know where to find important stones that were sold years before. They can contact their clients and act as brokers to resell the gemstones, making a substantial profit for both parties. As global wealth shifts toward China, previous customers in Japan and the West have become sources of fine-quality gemstones for this secondary market. These stones may be recut to more contemporary proportion and symmetry standards, and sapphires that were heated 30 years ago can be retreated using modern technology. A couple of decades ago, Sri Lankan dealers would attend exhibitions and trade shows in Japan and the United States to sell gemstones. Now some of them go to buy gemstones for recutting, heat treatment, and resale in the Chinese market. HEAT TREATMENT Sri Lanka is highly regarded for its heat treatment expertise (figure 27). Those who perform heat treatment, called burners, are known for their ability to get the finest blue color out of a sapphire. They typically use a two-part process, a combination of gas and electric furnaces. The second burn, in the electric furnace, refines the blue color, often achieving a much more valuable color. Some other countries that treat sapphire send their heated material to Sri Lanka for the second burn (A. Iqbal, pers. comm. 2014). Figure 27. Rough sold in mine-area markets can be dramatically improved through heat treatment. It takes considerable experience to predict the change in value. Photo by Andrew Lucas. We visited one burner in Beruwala who heated blue sapphire from Sri Lanka and Madagascar in a gas furnace. The stones were heated to approximately 1600degC to 1700degC for four hours in an aluminum oxide crucible with a reducing atmosphere. For yellow Sri Lankan sapphires, the burner used an oxidizing atmosphere at approximately 1600degC for six hours. No compounds or fluxes were used in the crucible. The gas furnace is typically a Lakmini furnace, which has an alumina chamber covered in insulation and a stainless steel exterior, a water cooling system, two gas flow meters, two thermocouples and temperature indicators (digital or analog), a view hole, and an inlet top feed for an additional gas such as nitrogen or hydrogen (M. Hussain, pers. comm. 2014). An atmosphere rich in carbon dioxide is reported to work best for geuda sapphires, turning them transparent and blue (Kuriyan, 1994). Clients typically bring mixed parcels of sapphires in different colors. The burner will divide the lot by color and type of sapphire and the desired result, and then advise the client of the different heating processes and what can be expected after treatment. Most stones brought to the burner are in the preform stage, so most of the inclusions that could cause damage are already cut away. Treatment in the gas furnace is almost always followed by heating in an electric oven to further improve the color (M. Hussain, pers. comm. 2014). Expertise in heat treatment has also made Sri Lankans more competitive in buying rough from Africa and other sources. Some African blue sapphire, especially from Madagascar, is similar to Sri Lankan geuda material (F. Rehan, pers. comm. 2014). In value terms, the effect of modern heat treatment is tremendous. One Sri Lankan burner can reportedly take light blue sapphire with silk inclusions causing a foggy appearance, valued at US300 per carat for a 10 ct stone, and heat it to a transparent fine blue color valued at US2,000 per carat. This burner asks for one-third the value of the heated stone rather than a flat fee (N. Sammoon, pers. comm. 2014). JEWELRY MANUFACTURING As with gemstone cutting, there are both traditional and modern methods for jewelry manufacture. Both approaches are used in Sri Lanka, though some metals and styles are more suited to modern manufacturing. Mass-production techniques give some companies a competitive advantage by lowering costs. Jewelry made in Sri Lanka is targeted to the domestic retail market and to Sri Lankans living abroad. Manufacturing for export and for the emerging tourist industry is expected to grow. Traditional 22K Gold Jewelry Manufacturing. The 22K gold jewelry manufactured in Sri Lanka is alloyed to have a slightly more reddish yellow color than similar goods from India, Singapore, Dubai, and Turkey. This is accomplished by using a slightly higher percentage of copper and a lower percentage of silver in the alloy. In countless small workshops in Colombo and other areas of Sri Lanka, 22K gold jewelry is manufactured using time-honored and modern methods. We witnessed many of these shops in Colombo and during an extensive tour of the Sujitha Jewellery workshop on the famous hub of Sea Street. While small by global standards, this was one of the larger facilities we observed. They worked primarily with 22K gold and created traditional styles. About a dozen jewelers were working in small rooms that made very efficient use of space. The jewelers sat on the floor as they fabricated by hand. Many of them were shirtless due to the heat. They bent and formed metal with pliers, filed, sawed, polished with flex shafts and traditional leather strips embedded with polishing compounds, and soldered. Most used jewelerrsquos torches, but one still preferred a blowpipe for soldering (figure 28). Equipment such as a hand-powered rolling mill and draw plate was used to make gold sheet and wire. Figure 28. This jeweler preferred the traditional blowpipe for soldering 22K gold jewelry. His ability to control the direction and intensity of the flame was remarkable. Photos by Andrew Lucas. Modern Jewelry Manufacturing. In contrast to these traditional shops are modern facilities where technology has been embraced by the Sri Lankan jewelry manufacturing industry. Large-capacity vacuum casters imported from Italy can handle numerous waxes for mass production of both 22K gold jewelry and more contemporary pieces in 18K gold, white gold, platinum, or even silver. Other technologies such as casting diamonds in place, laser welding (instead of soldering), stamping or die striking, machining, and CADCAMmdashthe methods used in manufacturing centers such as Italy, China, and Indiamdashhave been adopted by progressive Sri Lankan jewelry manufacturers (figure 29). Figure 29. CADCAM is used for all styles of Sri Lankan jewelry design, even traditional 22K gold jewelry. Photo by Andrew Lucas courtesy of Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery. We visited the modern factory of Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery in Colombo. The company manufactures jewelry primarily for its retail store and online business, which also serves overseas clients. The spacious facility handled all types of gold alloys, silver, and platinum, but a large part of the production consisted of 22K gold jewelry. While the factory incorporated methods such as lost-wax casting and die striking, there were also jewelers working on hand fabrication using traditional forming techniques, albeit at modern jewelerrsquos benches. Besides traditional 22K gold jewelry for the domestic market, modern jewelry manufacturing is also being adopted by colored stone cutting and trading companies who are moving into finished jewelry. Customers from the United States and other developed markets are increasingly purchasing Sri Lankan jewelry with mounted colored stones (S. Ramesh Khanth, N. Seenivasagam, and N. S. Vasu, pers. comms. 2014). Jewelry that can be designed and custom-made to specifications is also manufactured in Sri Lanka. One of Sri Lankarsquos leading retailers and jewelry exporters, Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery is also one of its most progressive manufacturers. Along with mass-market 22K gold jewelry, they manufacture a full range of styles, including gemstone, synthetic gemstone, white gold, and platinum jewelry (figure 30). To safeguard against cross-contamination, tools such as files, polishing wheels, and burs are dedicated solely to platinum manufacturing. Figure 30. While 22K gold jewelry represents the mainstream in Sri Lanka, contemporary jewelers also sell white metal and gem-set jewelry, such as the earrings and ring worn by this model. Photo by Andrew Lucas courtesy of Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery. In 1990, Wellawatta Nithyakalyani invested in a vacuum casting machine from Italy. The few other casting operations in existence used centrifugal casting. This machine gave the company an advantage in capacity, speed, and cost of producing jewelry for its retail store. In terms of consistency, vacuum casting lowered the weight variation of pieces from about 10 with hand fabrication to less than 1. Today, the factory incorporates hand fabrication, wax carving, casting, stamping, and various settings such as prong, bead, paveacute, and channel. Wellawatta Nithyakalyanirsquos manufacturing methods are becoming more modernized and cost-effective. Even though hand fabrication costs remain relatively low in Sri Lanka, the competitive market and low margins for 22K jewelry have led to the widespread use of casting (figure 31) and stamping. Companies that manufacture and sell directly to retail customers have a distinct advantage, as they can eliminate distribution costs for this low-markup jewelry. Figure 31. These wax carvings are being fine-tuned to make master models from which tens of thousands of pieces can be reproduced. Photo by Andrew Lucas courtesy of Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery. The company focuses its retail efforts on women and middle - to upper-class consumers in Colombo and its suburbs, where the countryrsquos strongest jewelry market exists. The precious metal weight of its jewelry ranges from one gram to over 100 grams in a single piece, catering to a broad span of income. Wellawatta Nithyakalyani also manufactures and retails jewelry set with diamonds, colored gemstones, cubic zirconia, and crystal glass. This includes white precious metals, 18K gold, and traditional 22K gold used for weddings and as financial assets. The 22K gold wedding necklaces generally range from US450 to 4,500. Between its manufacturing and retail operations, the company staffs about 115 employees, representing a cross-section of Sri Lankarsquos ethnic and religious groups. Its two full-time designers have degrees in architecture and are trained in jewelry design using CADCAM. Most of Wellawatta Nithyakalyanirsquos export business is for mass-produced lines of jewelry sold in high volume. These are shipped to retailers in Canada, UK, Switzerland, Australia, and Dubai, where they are usually purchased by Sri Lankans living abroad. These expatriates also buy jewelry, especially diamond and gemstone merchandise, when they return to Sri Lanka for holidays. In addition, the companyrsquos website offers an extensive line of jewelry directly to retail customers worldwide. Another company that encompasses the manufacturing-to-retail value chain can be found on Sea Street, home of Ravi Jewellers. The company, founded in the 1960s by Ravi Samaranayake as a small traditional 22K gold jewelry retailer, has operated continuously for almost 50 years. Today, the firm is involved in jewelry manufacturing, creating jewelry of all styles sold directly to retail customers (figure 32). Figure 32. Sri Lankan retailers needed a large inventory for their customers to choose from. Box after box of 22K gold and other types of jewelry would be brought out for customers. Photo by Andrew Lucas courtesy of Ravi Jewellers. With its modern manufacturing capability, Ravi Jewellers also sells wholesale to other retailers throughout Sri Lanka. This demonstrates another emerging trend where companies that cover the manufacturing-to-retail value chain sell wholesale to smaller domestic retailers. Their manufacturing division also allows them to provide an extensive custom design service to their retail clients and on the wholesale level to other retailers, a business model that creates a competitive advantage. In addition to being the Sri Lankan agent for Swarovski synthetic cubic zirconia, the company markets Italian alloys and serves as an official currency exchange to accommodate tourists. It has even ventured into selling gold bullion purchased in Dubai. For all its modernization and expansion of services, Ravi Jewellers remains a family business, typical of the Sri Lankan industry. JEWELRY RETAIL Sri Lanka has a thriving domestic retail jewelry industry. Its dynamics are different from those of Western jewelry markets and even elsewhere in Asia. Its retail industry is strongly influenced by jewelryrsquos role in Sri Lanka as an investment and hedge against economic uncertainty, the tradition of gold wedding jewelry, the preferences of religious groups, the tourist trade, the Western tendencies of younger consumers, and the lack of emphasis on gemstones in jewelry. Jewelry as a Financial Asset. The use of gold jewelry for financial security is a tradition among many Sri Lankans. As one European gem dealer noted, they are more practical than Western jewelry buyers, who purchase luxury branded products as status symbols that lose most of their value immediately. When there is ample income, Sri Lankans typically buy gold jewelry that can be converted to cash during difficult economic times. The pawn industry is a major component of the Sri Lankan economy, and most major banks issue loans with jewelry as collateral. The loans are based almost entirely on the commodity value of the gold, with heavier 22K pieces receiving the highest loan value. Some of the countryrsquos major banks have anywhere from 17 to 40 of their lending portfolios concentrated in gold jewelry as collateral (A. P. Jayarajah, pers. comm. 2014). Many lower - to middle-class Sri Lankans use pawn shops for 22K gold jewelry loans, receiving instant cash for 75 to 80 of the gold value. Most of these pieces are heavy, from about 80 to 160 grams. Clients generally redeem their items within six months to a year and pay a slight interest charge. Men tend to pawn jewelry more than women (V. Rishanthan, pers. comm. 2014). During the height of the gold market, when prices soared to more than US1,700 an ounce, the lending industry became very competitive and pawn shops were offering around 90 of the gold value of jewelry. Many consumers did not redeem their jewelry at these loan values, and when the price of gold fell, the pawn shops lost substantial collateral value. Wedding Jewelry. For most jewelers in Sri Lanka, the wedding business is arguably the most important. Although jewelry trends inevitably change, gold is an essential component of a Sri Lankan wedding. Jewelry is given to the bride and the groom, as well as the bridal party. Around 80 of this wedding jewelry is for the bride, though jewelry purchases for the groom are on the rise (V. Rishanthan, pers. comms. 2014). Traditional 22K gold jewelry remains the wedding jewelry of choice, and it is still used as a dowry in Sri Lanka. Sri Lankans comprise many of the major religions: Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. Each religion has its own style of jewelry, especially for weddings, with differences both subtle and obvious (A. P. Jayarajah and V. Rishanthan, pers. comms. 2014). Hindus tend to wear larger, heavier jewelry of a more Indian style, and designs are often based on what is popular in India (V. Rishanthan, pers. comm. 2014). In Hindu weddings, the bride is given substantial amounts of 22K gold jewelry, including a thick Thali necklace (often weighing between 80 and 250 grams) and longer chains, as well as bangle bracelets. The groom usually receives one simple ring. The bridesmaids and the groomrsquos mother and sisters also receive 22K gold jewelry, making Hindu weddings a major jewelry purchasing event in Sri Lanka. Buddhists use both rings and necklaces for weddings, often with more floral and classic Sinhalese designs. Sinhalese Buddhists tend to choose lighter, more delicate designs than Hindus for weddings. Brides are presented with a ring, necklace, bangle, and matching earrings in their wedding sets, and the groom receives a gold ring. Still, most Buddhist weddings do not involve as much gold jewelry as Hindu weddings. In addition to the Thali, Sri Lankarsquos Christian community uses rings for the bride and groom. Whereas Hindu Thali necklaces often incorporate a square shape with a symbol of Vishnu inside, Christian Thali designs feature the Bible or a heart shape with a dove. Muslims tend to buy larger and heavier bangle bracelets than the Hindus, Buddhists, or Christians. Sri Lankan retailers immediately know the ethnicity and religion of their customers by observing the jewelry they wear into the store. Of the more than 3,500 bangle bracelets in Wellawatta Nithyashykalyanirsquos product lines, around 95 of these are 22K gold. This is the bracelet of choice in the Muslim community, whose women display their bangles stacked on the arm. Muslim brides also receive a Thali and a large chain, matching earrings, and engagement necklace. Grooms often prefer a white metal for their ring. Expatriate and Tourist Trade. The strong tie between Sri Lankans and their jewelry is not confined to the island. Sri Lankans living abroad, many of whom left during the civil war, purchase traditional jewelry when returning to their native land. The month of August is especially busy for Sri Lankan retailers, as many expatriates living in Europe return for vacation (V. Rishanthan, pers. comm. 2014). They will plan out and purchase all the jewelry gifts needed for the entire year, such as weddings, birthdays, and other occasions. Again, most of them choose traditional 22K gold jewelry based on ethnic or religious heritage. Since the end of the civil war in 2009, tourism has been growing. With over one million tourists in 2013 and an expected doubling of that figure in 2014, retailers noted a dramatic impact on sales. Many of these tourists are Sri Lankans living abroad, but retailers are seeing more European, Australian, American, and especially Chinese visitors. The countryrsquos jewelry industry is working to brand Ceylon sapphires, which are sold in boutiques of major hotels (A. Iqbal, pers. comm. 2014). Retailers are reporting the positive effects of tourism on sapphire jewelry sales. Global awareness of Sri Lankan sapphires was also heightened in October 2010, when Great Britainrsquos Prince William gave Kate Middleton a Sri Lankan blue sapphire engagement ringmdashthe same ring worn by his mother, Diana, Princess of Wales. According to officials from the NGJA and the International Colored Gemstone Association (ICA), demand for Sri Lankan blue sapphires in engagement rings rose sharply in the West and in China. Sea Street. One of the most important areas for Colomborsquos jewelry trade is near the harbor on Sea Street. The Sea Street jewelry trade was started in the early 1900s by the Chettiar community, a Hindu caste originating in southern India. They are known as a mercantile class of businesspeople and bankers. The Chettiar merchants were involved in money lending, largely with jewelry as collateral. Over time, this led to the development of jewelry retail, wholesale, and manufacturing businesses on Sea Street. By the 1950s, the district had become the major jewelry hub of Sri Lanka, focusing on 22K gold. There are still Chettiar temples on Sea Street today, though much of the community has returned to India (V. Rishanthan, pers. comm. 2014). While Sea Street remains the countryrsquos jewelry hub, the rest of the country has seen significant retail and wholesale growth since the end of the civil war. Sea Street often supplies these new retailers with wholesale jewelry and manufacturing, or with specialized services such as stone setting, laser welding, and plating. In return, small local manufacturers throughout Sri Lanka supply finished jewelry to Sea Street retailers (V. Rishanthan, pers. comm. 2014). Figure 33. Sea Street is a concentrated center of retailers, pawn shops, and jewelry manufacturers. Photo by Andrew Lucas. Walking down the few blocks of Sea Street, you see hundreds of jewelry stores and pawn shops (figure 33). Closer examination reveals that some of the storefronts lead to complexes divided into 50 to 100 very small shops, some just 10 by 10 meters. Within these shops, jewelry is crafted using traditional methods. Much of the manufacturing on Sea Street consists of family businesses that continue from one generation to the next. Gemstone Jewelry Market. While Sri Lanka is known all over the world as an abundant supplier of sapphire and other colored gemstones, the local market for gemstone jewelry is surprisingly weak. Much of the domestic demand is for 22K gold jewelry without gemstones. Even more interesting is the Sri Lankan preference for synthetic cubic zirconia and crystal glass in jewelry. This is directly related to the custom of buying jewelry as much for financial security as for personal adornment. Sri Lankans can always go to a pawn shop or bank and receive a high percentage of the gold value in their jewelry as a loan. Once gemstones are added to the jewelry, it becomes more difficult to receive a loan value close to the cost of the piece. The gemstone value is not as liquid and cannot be assigned a market value for a loan. As a low-cost alternative to add color and sparkle to their jewelry, many Sri Lankans opt for cubic zirconia and crystal glass (figure 34). For instance, a 22K gold bracelet set with CZ might cost US500 at Wellawatta Nithyakalyani, compared to US5,000 for a comparable bracelet set with good-quality natural diamonds. Unlike consumers in the West or Japan and China, Sri Lankans see little reason to spend the difference. For mass-market 22K gold jewelry, most consumers only allow the addition of gemstones up to 25 above the price of the gold. After that, there is price resistance. Sri Lankans are often willing to spend more on gemstones in 18K gold jewelrymdashapproximately 40 above the gold valuemdashand even more for platinum jewelry. But this custom is slowly changing, and the market for natural colored gemstones and diamonds set in jewelry is growing, especially among upper-income and young consumers. Figure 34. Many retail stores offer gold jewelry with less-expensive Swarovski crystal and cubic zirconia to add color and sparkle. Photo by Andrew Lucas. Younger Consumers. V. Rishanthan, director of Ravi Jewellers, compared the buying preferences of his motherrsquos generation and his wifersquos generation. His motherrsquos generation, composed of women in their sixties, prefers large sets of 22K gold jewelry and substantial pieces weighing 40 to 80 grams. These impressive sets are reserved for special occasions such as weddings, birthdays, and visits to the temple. The rest of the time, such jewelry is kept in a safe or other secure location. This generation also views jewelry as a commodity that can be readily pawned for cash. Rishanthanrsquos wife, representing the younger generation of women in their twenties and thirties, prefers lighter jewelry, such as necklaces weighing around 8 to 10 grams. His wife may own ten lighter pendants while his mother may have only two much heavier pendants. Younger women are very aware of jewelryrsquos financial uses but want to wear it every day, in a variety of fashionable styles. Another trend among younger Sri Lankans is to resell their jewelry back to a store within six months to a year to trade it in for a new style. So while younger consumers may be buying lighter jewelry, they are buying more pieces and constantly exchanging them for new styles, creating more opportunities for the Sri Lankan retail industry. These younger consumers pay close attention to design trends and up-and-coming designers (V. Rishanthan, R. Samaranayake, J. Sasikumaran, and Y. P. Sivakumar, pers. comms. 2014). The younger generation is also far more open to other gold alloys such as 18K, and they are especially fond of white metals such as platinum, white gold, and silver. Still, the sentimental and investment aspects of 22K yellow gold jewelry are not lost on the new generation of Sri Lankan consumers. Younger men are buying more jewelry for themselves, and these still tend to be heavier pieces. With their preference for modern designs, younger consumers also buy more jewelry with diamonds (especially smaller ones) and colored gemstones, usually set in white metal. Blue sapphire is quite popular. Synthetic cubic zirconia or crystal glass can also be used to achieve the desired color. As with yellow gold jewelry, these white metal pieces tend to be lightweight. CONCLUSION Our expedition to Sri Lanka took us through all sectors of the colored gemstone and jewelry industry. While other reports have tended to focus on mining or treatment, very few have tackled the entire scope of the Sri Lankan industry. Over the course of two weeks, we witnessed mining operations, traditional and modern cutting, trading, treatment, and retail. The resulting documentation revealed a very vibrant industry across all sectors and allowed us to construct a complete picture. The changes over the last decade have been significant. Modernized cutting has allowed Sri Lanka to produce precision cuts of the highest caliber. Meanwhile, traditional cutting continues to incorporate centuries of experience orienting sapphire, catrsquos-eye chrysoberyl, and other colored stones for color and weight retention. Mining is still aggressively pursued but mostly by small-scale operations, helping to preserve the environment and gem resources so more Sri Lankans have more opportunities to strike it rich. A wealth of trade expertise gives Sri Lanka a competitive advantage as it looks to expand its share of the global gem market. Many foreign buyers consult with local dealers on purchasing decisions and the potential benefits of recutting and heat treatment. Rough stones imported from other global sources fuel the value-added industries of cutting and treatment. With decades of trading experience and a global client list, Sri Lankan dealers know where to find important stones for the growing secondary market, particularly in China. Meanwhile, trade organizations such as the National Gem and Jewellery Association and the National Gem and Jewellery Authority are working on a bilateral trade agreement that could eliminate import tariffs on colored gemstones entering China from Sri Lanka (R. Kamil, pers. comm. 2014). Jewelry manufacturing is another sector that incorporates both traditional and modern techniques. Most of the manufacturing is to satisfy consumer demand for 22K gold jewelry, as a wedding gift and as a financial asset, at home and in Sri Lankan communities around the world. Younger consumers are demanding contemporary styles, new metals and alloys, and a greater use of gemstones. A growing tourist industry is also influencing Sri Lankan jewelry manufacture. Figure 35. The Sri Lankan retail industry hopes to maintain the traditional market in 22K gold jewelry while developing new products to meet the tastes of future generations. Photo by Andrew Lucas. With rapid economic development since the end of the civil war in 2009, the Sri Lankan gem and jewelry industry could see dramatic growth, albeit at a much smaller scale than in neighboring India. Some of this growth is already happening in the diamond jewelry market, which has long been hindered by consumersrsquo limited purchasing power and the tradition of pawning jewelry for the commodity value of the precious metals. It remains to be seen whether Sri Lankan demand for contemporary jewelry featuring diamonds, colored stones, and alternative precious metals will match the popularity of 22K gold jewelry (figure 35). The islandrsquos gem and jewelry industry displays remarkable vitality and ambition for growth. With the ICA Congress coming to Colombo in 2015, the influx of foreign buyers to the annual Facets Sri Lanka show, and a stronger presence at trade shows in China, the Sri Lankan industry is striving for greater international recognition. About the Authors Mr. Lucas is manager of field gemology, Dr. Hsu is technical editor of Gems Gemology . and Mr. Padua is video producer, at GIA in Carlsbad, California. Mr. Sammoon is a member of the board of directors of the National Gem and Jewellery Authority, chairman of the Sapphire Capital Group, chairman of foreign promotions and deputy chairman of Facets Sri Lanka of the Sri Lanka Gem and Jewellery Association. Mr. Jayarajah is CEO of Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery and chairman of the Sri Lanka Gem and Jewellery Association. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the following members of the Sri Lankan gemstone and jewelry industry for all their support and sharing their experience and knowledge: Shamil Sammoon (Sapphire Capital Group) Naji Sammoon (Sapphire Cutters Ltd.) Faiq Rehan (Precision Lapidaries) Sujitha Traditional Jewellery Ravi Samaranayake and V. Rishanthan (Ravi Jewellers) Y. P. Sivakumar and J. Sasikumaran (Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery) Prof. P. G.R. Dharmaratne (former chairman, National Gem and Jewellery Authority) Ajith Siriwardena (deputy superintendent of Customs) Saman K. Amarasena (Swiss Cut Lapidary) A. H.M. Imtizam (Gem Paradise) H. C.J. Bandara N. Seenivasagam and N. S. Vasu (Devi Jewellers) S. Ramesh Khanth (Devi Gold Cast) M. S.M Fazli (Saleems Limited) Juzar Adamaly and Roshen Weereratne (Facets Sri Lanka) Aly Farook Ruzwan Kamil (MSM Kamil Exporter of Fine Gemstones) W. D. Nandasari (Sapphire Gems) Nabeel Salie (FJC The Fine Jewellery Company) Altaf Iqbal (Regal Gems) M. Hussain M. T.M Haris (Emteem Gem Laboratory) and M. L.M. Sanoon (San Gems). The National Gem and Jewellery Authority of Sri Lanka, the Sri Lanka Gem and Jewellery Association, and the International Colored Gemstone Association provided access to and understanding of the countrys industry. References Ariyaratna D. H. (2013) Gems of Sri Lanka . 7th ed. AampB Graphics Nawinna, Maharagama, Sri Lanka. China becoming Sri Lankarsquos top gem buyer from emerging markets (2011) Xinhua News Agency, news. xinhuanetenglish2010 china2011-0915c131141158.htm date accessed: Oct. 10, 2014. CIA World Fact Book (2014) South Asia: Sri Lanka, ww w. cia. govlibrarypublicationsthe-world-factbookgeosce. html. Cooray P. G. (1994) The Precambrian of Sri Lanka: A historical review. Precambrian Research . Vol. 66, No. 1ndash4, pp. 3ndash18, dx. doi. org10.10160301-9268(94)90041-8. Dharmaratne P. G.R. (2002) Gem mining and sustainable environmental management in Sri Lanka . Journal of Gemmology . Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 153ndash161. Dharmaratne P. G.R. Ranjith Premasiri H. M. Dillimuni D. (2012) Sapphires from Thammannawa, Kataragama area, Sri Lanka. GampG . Vol. 48, No. 2, pp. 98ndash107, dx. doi. org10.5741 GEMS.48.2.98. Dissanayake C. B. (1986 ) Preliminary Assessment of the Gem Potential of Sri Lanka . Economic Development Board (EDB), Colombo, Sri Lanka, p. 160. Dissanayake C. B. Chandrajith R. (2003) Gem-Bearing Stream Sediments of Sri Lanka Geology and Geochemistry . Gem and Jewellery Research and Training Institute and the National Gem and Jewellery Authority, Colombo, Sri Lanka. Groat L. A. Giuliani G. (2014) Geology of Gem Deposits . Second Edition, Short Course Series Volume 44, Chapter 2: The Geology and Genesis of Corundum Deposits, Mineralogical Association of Canada, p. 95. Grunow A. Hanson R. Wilson T. (1996) Were aspects of Pan-African deformation linked to Iapetus opening Geology . Vol. 24, No. 12, pp. 1063ndash1066, dx. doi. org10.11300091-7613(1996)0241063:WAOPAD2.3.CO2. Hughes R. W. (1997) Ruby amp Sapphire . RWH Publishing, Boulder, CO. Hughes R. W. (2014) Ruby amp Sapphire: A Collectorrsquos Guide . Gem and Jewelry Institute of Thailand, Bangkok. Kroumlner A. (1991) African linkage of Precambrian Sri Lanka. Geologische Rundschau . Vol. 80, No. 2, pp. 429ndash440, dx. doi. org10.1007BF01829375. Kroumlner A. Williams I. S. (1993) Age of metamorphism in the high-grade rocks of Sri Lanka. Journal of Geology . Vol. 101, No. 4, pp. 513ndash521, dx. doi. org10.1086648243. Kuriyan V. (1994) Sri Lankarsquos growing heat treatment expertise. ICA Gazette . April, pp. 8ndash9. Li Z. X. Bogdanova S. V. Collins A. S. Davidson A. De Waele B. Ernst R. E. Fitzsimons I. C.W. Fuck R. A. Gladkochub D. P., Jacobs J. Karlstrom K. E. Lu S. Natapov L. M. Peace V., Pisarevsky S. A. Thrane K. Vernikovsky V. (2008) Assembly, configuration, and break-up history of Rodinia: A synthesis. Precambrian Research . Vol. 160, No. 1ndash2, pp. 179ndash210, dx. doi. org10.1016j. precamres.2007.04.021. McMenamin M. A.S. McMenamin D. L.S. (1990) The Emergence of Animals: The Cambrian Breakthrough . Columbia University Press, New York. Mahroof M. M.M. (1997) Corundum in Sri Lanka: Its historical and social role. Part 1. The Canadian Gemmologist . Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 111ndash116. Mendis D. P.J. Rupasinghe M. S. Dissanayake C. B. (1993) Application of structural geology in the exploration for residual gem deposits of Sri Lanka. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Finland . Vol. 65, pp. 31ndash40. Milisenda C. C. Liew T. C. Hofmann A. W. Kroumlner A. (1988) Isotopic mapping of age provinces in Precambrian high-grade terranes: Sri Lanka. Journal of Geology . Vol. 96, No. 5, pp. 608ndash615, dx. doi. org10.1086629256. Pardieu V. (2012) Sapphire rush near Kataragama, Sri Lanka. GIA News from Research . giathaipdfKataragama. pdf. Rino S. Kon T. Sato W. Maruyama S. Santosh M. Zhao D. (2008). The Grenvillian and Pan-African orogens: Worldrsquos largest orogenies through geologic time, and their implications on the origin of superplume. Gondwana Research . Vol. 14, No. 1ndash2, pp. 51ndash72, dx. doi. org10.1016j. gr.2008.01.001. Sajeev K. Osanai Y. (2004) Ultrahigh-temperature metamorphism (1150degC, 12thinspkbar) and multistage evolution of Mg-, Al-rich granulites from the Central Highland Complex, Sri Lanka. Journal of Petrology . Vol. 45, No. 9, pp. 1821ndash1844, dx. doi. org10.1093petrologyegh035. Zwaan P. C. (1982) Sri Lanka: The gem island. GampG . Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 62ndash71, dx. doi. org10.5741GEMS.18.2.62. Zwaan P. C. (1986) Gem minerals from the Embilipitiya and Kataragama areas in Sri Lanka. The Australian Gemmologist . Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 35ndash40.
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